In Sardar Sarvai Papanna Gowda’s movement, forts were not merely defensive structures. They were political instruments that embodied power. The way Papanna used forts establishes his movement as a regional power-building experiment, rather than a temporary military resistance. This section examines how the series of forts under Papanna’s control came to be, why they were concentrated in specific areas, and why this system became a serious challenge to state power. [ 1 ]
5.1.1 Forts – From military refuge to political center
Traditionally, forts have been seen as symbols of the military might of a kingdom. However, in the case of Papanna, forts played a different role. They did not merely provide protection from enemy attacks. They served as a refuge for the people, a forum for justice, and an alternative center of power.
These forts became crucial for the expansion of the Papanna movement into rural areas. The presence of forts gave a clear signal to the people that there could be a controllable political space outside of state authority.
5.1.2 Geographic distribution of castles – not random
The forts under Papanna were not chosen at random. They were generally built or occupied on the edges of forested areas, close to trade routes, and at a challenging distance from administrative centers. This geographical distribution reflects Papanna’s strategic thinking. The forts were not subordinate to a single center. They functioned as a wider system. Even if one fort was attacked, the rest of the forts could continue the movement.
This decentralization poses major challenges to state military power. While state armies can target a single center and attack, it is very difficult to completely dismantle this system.
5.1.3. Construction and maintenance of fortresses and bastions
The forts mentioned in the Papanna movement – Sarvaipeta, Tatikonda, Kolanupaka, Bonagiri, Vemulakonda, Huzurabad, Husnabad – were geographically different, but politically connected. The distance, flow of information, and mutual cooperation between these forts gave the movement mobility.
These forts depended on local resources. Food, human resources, and information came from the rural community. It was this dependent relationship that made the forts inseparable from the people.
Papanna maintained his rule over various areas for almost 30 years, including Bonagiri in Nalgonda Pargana, Tatikonda in Warangal region, Kolanupaka in Kolanupaka region, Cheryala, Karimnagar, Vemulakonda, Huzurabad, and Husnabad. Papanna was unable to rule steadily due to constant fighting with local subedars, zamindars, and landowning nobles. Papanna had to fight not only against local rulers but also against the Mughal armies. Even under such pressure, historians agree that he ruled over the entire area of present-day Warangal, Karimnagar, and Nalgonda districts for almost 20 years. He built strong forts in Sarvaipeta, Tatikonda, and Shapuram for the protection of his army and for the expansion of his kingdom. He made Shapuram Fort his main base. Apart from these, there are traces of forts built by Papanna in Sarvaipeta, Vemulakonda, Nalgonda and Karimnagar areas, which are enshrined in the people’s memories. There are also ruins of forts and bastions on the ‘Meedi Konda’ hill near Shapuram, on the ‘Ghanapuram’ pond embankment, and in the Huzurabad area, in areas like ‘Mandapuram’, Jafargarh, Weldi and Bairanpally. There are records that Papanna, who was constantly immersed in wars, undertook constructions somewhere nearby every time he was defeated.
The first fort was Sarvai Peta.
Sarvaipeta was the first place where Papanna declared independence and ruled in 1675 AD. Papanna’s Vijayayatra started from here. If you look at the construction of this impenetrable fort, you can understand the power of Papanna. This fort was built on an area of about ten acres. There is a strong stone gate to prevent enemies from entering. Built at a height of about 20 feet, the gate of this fort is in a way that is unmatched by any royal structure. Suitable methods were followed in the construction to close the gate.
This square-shaped fort has bastions about 50 feet high on all four sides. There are stairs to load ammunition and cannons onto the bastions. The top of the bastion is wide enough to accommodate the cannons stored by the soldiers. Special construction methods were adopted to protect the cannons at the top of the bastion from enemies. To the right of the fort gate, there is a stone-built koneru. A little further away is a Chada well. In this Chada well, there is a bokken tied with iron chains. When the chain is pulled, it reaches the water level and stops. It does not float completely. The reason is unknown.
To the left of the fort entrance are the Kotagiri hills. On the top of the hill are the Koneru and structures suitable for resting. Here is the idol of Aiyyanna, worshipped by Papanna. There is also the Chakali Aichamma Arra (room) of Papanna’s lover. There is a large moat surrounding the fort. This moat was used to keep water. Crocodiles were released in the moat filled with water covering an area of one hundred acres. The moat was constructed so that enemy forces could not enter the fort or its outskirts directly. There are traces of secret passages from the fort to the hills. All these have fallen into ruins today.
Husnabad Tower
In the middle of the village of Husnabad, there is a bastion built by Papanna. Like the other bastions, this one was also built. It is suitable for storing cannons and ammunition. There are stairs to climb the bastion. It is known that such isolated bastions were built to prove that the respective areas came under the control of Papanna.
This stone-built fort was constructed using stones collected from ruined temples. However, these stones were not used in a systematic manner. These stones, on which the statues were carved, were not used properly. This means that in the construction of the fort, Papanna gave priority to protection and did not give any space for devotion and faith. Such forts are found in all the areas that Papanna came under his control.
Papanna built the Yellamma temple near the hillock in Husnabad. The Yellamma idol is made entirely of clay. There is a neem tree in front of the temple. Over time, other idols were added to the Yellamma idol. A new temple was built on the site of the old temple. The idol made by Papanna is still intact. The Gaud caste continues to be the guardians of this temple even today.
Tatikonda (Warangal district)
Papanna, who initially ruled from Sarvaipet as his center, took control of the entire region and then accelerated the expansion of his kingdom. He strategically shifted his base to Tatikonda to capture his ultimate goal, Golconda. The Tatikonda Fort, built in 1698 AD, reflects Papanna’s power and expansion skills. The fort, built with a combination of stone and mud, and the bastions built entirely of stone, indicate Papanna’s power. If we examine the construction of this fort and the places related to the defense system, it can be assumed that Papanna’s army was in the thousands. The construction of the fort began with a bastion in the middle of Tatikonda village. A short distance from the bastion, there is another structure for defense in the fort courtyard.
Here, soldiers with modern weapons used to guard the fort. This structure is facing the entrance of the fort. Papanna used to build the fort in his own style using unique methods. He gave more importance to defense. This fort, built adjacent to the hill, is spread over an area of about 50 acres. It has four square towers 60 feet high. The fort rampart is also square in shape and has the same height. Soldiers with weapons used to guard the four towers around it. There is also a koneru in this fort. There is a small temple next to the koneru. There are chinta trees inside the fort that indicate the construction period. There are fort walls closing one side of the hill.
There is a wall around the top of the hill. Papanna made this hill a safe place. There are a total of 12 towers on the hill. There are some stone quarries. There are seven wells in this vast area. One well holds water all year round. Papanna’s talent is seen in choosing this area, which is surrounded by a complex of hills as far as the eye can see, as his center. He used to rest on these hills for a long time. Accordingly, these structures were built.
The villagers believe that there is an underground tunnel from Tatikonda Gutta to Shapuram. Some say that they traveled half a kilometer through this tunnel. The tunnel is still there. During the entire war, Papanna built all the forts and structures impenetrable to the enemy. Papana’s special feature was to escape through secret routes without being caught by the enemy. On many occasions, he was able to escape with his army through these secret routes. Surrendering to the enemy and being captured was against Papana’s rules of war. That is why he did not allow luxurious structures in his kingdom. He focused on the protection of his troops. All this is known from the precautions taken in the construction of the fort.
Vemulakonda as a separate place
As part of the expansion of the kingdom, Papanna stayed for some time on the Vemulakonda hills in Nalgonda district. He spent some time on the hills on the right of the three hills and some time on the hill in the middle. There is a stone wall around the hill on the right. The upper part of the hill in the middle is wide. On the top there is a temple built of stone and another temple built of stone and bricks. When you look from the top of the hill, only hills are visible around. There is a hill on the middle hill. This is a suitable place to rest and protect yourself from enemies. It is said that there is a watercourse from Vemulakonda to Pudichedu. Ruined bricks and earthenware pots can be seen at this place. The hill in the middle of the three hills is higher than the rest.
During the period of occupying the Nalgonda region, Papanna chose this area as a place of protection. He did not stay here for long. He stayed for a while as part of the expansion of the kingdom. That is why no special buildings were built here. New temples sprang up far from the old temples of historical importance. This is one of the places where Brahmins occupied the deity places of the oppressed castes, making them believe that they were very ancient by making artificial feet and some idols.
Among the buildings built by Papanna, the Shapuram Fort is unique. This is the reason for Papanna’s victories. Shapuram was the main center of Papanna until the conquest of Golconda. The construction of the fort in Shapuram took place between 1675-1695 AD. Dr. Pervaram talks about the construction of Shapuram Fort and its greatness.
In the words of Jagannath Garu— “The fort has big towers on all four sides. There is another tower in the middle. This is called ‘Nadimburuj’ by the locals. On the south side, there is another tower in the shape of a gummi like the fort wall. This is called ‘Gummiburuju’. On the west side, there is a tall lion gate. It is wide enough to walk from one tower to the other. On the north side, there is another small gate closed with earth. These are the two gates of this fort. There are holes on all four sides suitable for the batten walls so that the cannons can be aimed and fired. There were big bushes all the way to the end of this fort. They gradually dispersed.
Some of the stones used in the construction of this fort belong to temples. They were probably brought from ruined temples. This fort is built with a small mountain as its inner part and is impenetrable to enemies with stone, lime and bricks. Three tunnels are visible in this fort. One leads from the middle of the fort to the fresh water well outside. People say that during the Pavan era, elephants were used to carry water from the fresh water well into the fort.
This tunnel is built of strong stone pillars and lime. There are niches along the way. These must have been intended to be used for lighting lamps to help people see the way. Another tunnel starts from a tower and goes north beyond the ramparts and ends at the side through a tunnel covered with earth. People say that in ancient times there was a secret passage from Shapuram Fort to Thatikonda Fort through a tunnel. It is not known how true this is or what that tunnel is.
But very close to the fort on this northern side, there is an old well known as ‘Nanchari Bavi’.”
Papanna, having exhausted the royal system, acquired immense knowledge and skill in attacks. He took due precautions in confronting the enemy. The construction of the Shapuram Fort and the storage of weapons are evidence of Papanna’s ambition and perseverance. He made Shapuram Fort the main center of his independent rule. If we look at the details of the construction of this fort, Papanna’s strategic acumen and foresight are unmatched by any king. If we look at the precautions taken in the construction of the fort, Papanna’s war strategies and skill are evident.
Dust is a living testimony to the appearance of sin.
There are stone statues of Sarvai Papanna in Dhulimitta village, which is famous for Buddhism. This is a border village of Medak, Karimnagar and Warangal districts. There are many stone statues carved on stone here, which represent the victories and heroism of Papanna. After Papanna, the descendants of Nasagoni migrated to this village. After the fall of the Papanna kingdom, the nobles and landlords attacked their descendants. Therefore, the Nasagoni brought many statues from various places in this village in memory of Papanna and installed them here. These are in the field of Rajayya Goud of Nasagoni. There is a stone well and a banyan tree that are about two hundred years old. Under the banyan tree that is believed to be the well, there is a temple of Yellamma. Near the temple, there are statues carved on black stone of King Papanna on a horse with a darpa. There is a large stream near this place. The Goud caste used to hold festivals for Papanna’s favorite deity, Yellamma, and Papanna.
There are signs that the Gaud caste considered this place sacred in memory of the heroic stories of Papanna. Along with the black stone statue of Papanna riding a horse, this statue also contains hunting dogs and official symbols used by kings. Furthermore, the statues carved on white and black stone, representing Papanna’s heroism, demonstrate the skill of the sculptors. The statue of Papanna taking out a sword from his belt is carved with great skill.
The festivals celebrated by the descendants and the Goud caste in memory of Papanna for a long time are no longer continuing. This sacred place has become a piece of agricultural land and the statues are in a dilapidated state. If we investigate the historical traces here, there is a possibility that some more history about Papanna will come to light.
5.1.4. Chain of forts and territorial control
Through this system of fortifications, the Papanna movement did not completely conquer the territory. But it did break the state’s control over the territory. The state was unable to move freely in the countryside. Tax collectors, military forces, and administrative officials had to feel constantly in danger.
This situation gives a new definition to territorial control. Control does not mean directly ruling every area. It means limiting where and how the enemy can move. This limitation gave political power to the Papanna movement.
5.1.5 Castles and the legitimacy of authority
The presence of forts provided the Papanna movement not only with military security but also with legitimacy. People began to see the forts as places of justice rather than empty spaces where they stood against the state. This concept established Papanna as a regional authority rather than a predatory leader.
In the Papanna movement, forts are not just structures; they are physical manifestations of political thought.
The forts of the Papanna movement were not limited to military defenses. They soon transformed into administrative centers. This change was not accidental. It was a practical political response to the legal vacuum that had arisen between the state and the village. This section saw the forts become alternative centers of power through tax exemptions, public justice, and administrative practices.
5.2.1. Tax Abolition – From Economic Action to Political Statement
The first important decision taken in the areas under Papanna control was the abolition or reduction of taxes. This was not just a temporary relief measure. It was a direct political statement on state power. Tax collection was the main instrument of control exercised by the state over the village. By weakening that instrument, the Papanna movement challenged state power in the territory.
This action gave two clear signals to the rural people-
(1) An alternative to authority can be imagined.
(2) Justice begins with financial relief.
Thus, tax abolition became a moral-economic principle under Papanna’s rule.
5.2.2 Public Justice – From Informality to Formality
The justice practiced in the forts was not a copy of traditional state laws. It operated based on rural moral concepts. Dispute resolution, execution of punishments, and protective measures were carried out in public, in front of the people. This openness gave credibility to justice.
Justice here is not just about punishing. It is about restoring balance. Preventing unnecessary violence, protecting the weak, and setting limits on exploitation are all part of the practice of governance. These are the qualities that establish the Sinnana regime in the eyes of the people as a moral authority, not a regime of thieves.
5.2.3. Demonstration of authority – discipline over violence
Under Papanna’s rule, the exercise of power was primarily through discipline, not through ruthless violence. Exploitation, unnecessary punishment, or personal revenge were prohibited. This code was not just military discipline. It was a code of governance.
This control showed the people a clear distinction. While state power is based on fear, the power of the devil is based on trust. This distinction is what has sustained public support.
5.2.4. Castles and the social contract
The rule of forts was based on an unspoken social contract. The people provided shelter, information, and resources; the government provided justice, protection, and economic relief. It was this interdependence that transformed forts into living political spaces rather than empty military structures.
This agreement was not in writing. But it appeared to be stable in practice. This stability is what makes the Papanna movement recognized as a governance experiment, not a temporary rebellion.
5.2.5. Proto-state characteristics
Some proto-state characteristics are evident in the Papanna movement through these governance practices:
Effective control over territory
Decision-making power over tax policy
Justice system
Public justice
These characteristics, while not fully fledged states, were mature enough to question state authority. This is why the Papanna movement became a serious threat in the eyes of the state. The Papanna movement did not just occupy territory. It ruled the territory. Forts here served not as military structures but as alternative centers of justice and authority.
The location of the forts in the Papanna movement is not accidental. It is a clear geopolitical outcome. This section goes beyond the question of “Where were the forts built?” and seeks to answer the question “Why was it possible in those areas?” From the perspective of Spatial History, the Papanna movement used territory not as a backdrop, but as a political resource.
5.3.1. Forest-border areas-state limits
Most of the forts under Papanna’s control are located in forests, hills, and near administrative borders. These areas are areas where the state cannot fully control. In these areas, where military movements are slow, guerrilla tactics work most effectively.
These border territories have a political character. State authority is not fully exercised here. It is this gap that the Papanna movement has exploited to its advantage.
5.3.2. Trade routes and power disruption
Some of the Papanna forts were located close to trade routes. This proximity was not to completely stop trade. It was to control the routes through which resources reached the state. By indirectly controlling trade routes, the Papanna movement disrupted the state’s revenue flow.
This strategy sent an important political message. To challenge power, economic flows must be controlled. This understanding made the Papanna movement mature not only militarily, but also politically.
5.3.3. Rural systems and social space
The rural systems around the forts were the lifeblood of the Papanna movement. The forts were not isolated structures from the people. They were political spaces embedded in the rural community. Food, information, and human resources from the villages constantly reached the forts. This connectivity made the forts not “outsiders” but extensions of the village. This characteristic was the main challenge faced by the state.
5.3.4. Mobility and stability of power
The stability of power in the Papanna movement was not centralized in one place. Due to mobility between forts, the movement was not dependent on a single center. This mobility became a strategic advantage against the state.
State power requires fixed centers. Rebellion requires mobility. The disparity between these different needs sustained the Papanna movement.
5.3.5. Place as a political actor
The main argument that emerges from this Spatial Analysis is that space was not a passive element in the Papanna movement. It was an active political actor. The territory did not just provide shelter for Papanna. It guided his political strategy. Seen from this perspective, the Papanna movement did not “occupy” the territory; it worked with the territory. It was this collaboration that gave the movement its long-term strength.
In this context, the structure of Papanna forts, their geographical features and their connection with the people were key factors in the success of the movement. The forests, hills and natural obstacles were used not only as defensive tools but also as strategic resources. With a deep understanding of the terrain, the local forces carried out rapid movements and caused difficulties to the enemy army. The forts functioned as an interconnected defense system, which provided stability to the movement. Due to the decentralized structure, it was not easy for the state forces to completely suppress the movement. The cooperation formed between the rural community, the natural terrain and the forts formed a strong foundation for the movement. This coordination strengthened the faith of the people and contributed to the expansion of the movement. This geographical strategy adopted by Papanna reflects his political and military foresight. Therefore, the Papanna movement should be studied not only as a history of forts, but also as a popular resistance built with the participation of the territory and the people. This perspective clearly shows that space, society and political strategy are interconnected forces in the Papanna movement.